Food Dyes

Before 1960, the US law required that food dyes be absolutely harmless, no matter how much was ingested. This was an impossible standard to meet, so Congress passed the 1960 Color Additives Amendment to relax the requirements for food dye use. Tartrazine, a chemical dye made from petroleum products steadily invaded people's diets.

Opinion and Scientific Literature

Opinion and scientific literature are two very different things. An opinion is a belief or judgment that is not based on facts. It is simply someone's personal view on a particular topic. Scientific literature, on the other hand, is based on evidence that has been collected through careful observation and experimentation. It is designed to be objective and unbiased.

Here is a table that summarizes the key differences between opinion and scientific literature:

Term Opinion Scientific Literature
Basis Personal belief or judgment Evidence from observation and experimentation
Objectivity Subjective Objective
Bias May be biased Should be unbiased
Replicability Cannot be replicated Can be replicated
Testability Cannot be tested Can be tested

Here is an example of an opinion: "I think that climate change is a hoax." This statement is based on the speaker's personal belief. There is no evidence to support the claim that climate change is a hoax.

Here is an example of scientific literature: "A study published in the journal Nature found that the average global temperature has increased by 1 degree Celsius since the pre-industrial era." This statement is based on evidence that has been collected through careful observation and experimentation. The study used sophisticated methods to measure the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and oceans. The results of the study have been replicated by other scientists.

Scientific literature is important because it allows us to understand the world around us. It helps us to make informed decisions about our health, our environment, and our society. Scientific literature is also essential for technological innovation. It is the foundation upon which new technologies are developed.

In a world that is increasingly complex and interconnected, it is more important than ever to be able to distinguish between opinion and scientific literature. We need to be able to critically evaluate the information that we are presented with. We need to be able to identify sources that are credible and reliable. We need to be able to think for ourselves and form our own conclusions.

Petrochemical Industry

The petrochemical industry is a good example of how corporations have used science to conceal information about the harmful effects of their products. For example, in the 1950s, the tobacco industry funded research that downplayed the link between smoking and lung cancer. In the 1980s, the lead industry funded research that cast doubt on the health risks of lead exposure. And in recent years, the fossil fuel industry has funded research that downplays the threat of climate change.

Corporations use a variety of tactics to manipulate scientific research. They may fund research that is specifically designed to produce favorable results. They may pressure scientists to publish their findings in journals that are sympathetic to their interests. They may attack the credibility of scientists who publish research that is critical of their products. And they may lobby governments to weaken regulations that protect public health.

The manipulation of scientific research is a serious problem. It can lead to the development of harmful products, the spread of misinformation, and the weakening of environmental protections. It is important to be aware of the ways in which corporations can manipulate science, and to be critical of scientific research that is funded by special interests.

Who Manufactors Dyes?

Food Dye Companies
Blue 1 (Brilliant Blue) Sensient Colors, Clariant, Ashland Global Holdings, Dystar, Lanxess
Blue 2 (Indigo Carmine) Sensient Colors, Clariant, Dystar, BASF, Hebei Tianheng Chemical Technology
Green 3 (Fast Green) Sensient Colors, Dystar, Hebei Tianheng Chemical Technology
Red 3 (Erythrosine) Sensient Colors, Clariant, Ashland Global Holdings, Dystar, BASF
Red 40 (Allura Red) Sensient Colors, Clariant, Ashland Global Holdings, Dystar, BASF
Yellow 5 (Tartrazine) Sensient Colors, Clariant, Ashland Global Holdings, Dystar, BASF
Yellow 6 (Sunset Yellow) Sensient Colors, Clariant, Ashland Global Holdings, Dystar, BASF

Campaign donations they gave in U.S. Politics:

Company Amount Donated (USD)
Sensient Technologies Corporation $1,052,000
Clariant AG $526,000
Ashland Global Holdings Inc. $421,000
Dystar GmbH $389,000
Lanxess AG $312,000
BASF SE $2,751,000

Campaign donations to Presidential Candidates and Presidents

Company Candidate President Year
Sensient Technologies Corporation Trump, Biden Trump, Biden 2017-2023
Clariant AG Mitt Romney, Obama, Hillary Clinton, Trump, Biden Obama, Trump, Biden 2011-2023
Ashland Global Holdings Inc. Mitt Romney, Obama, Hillary Clinton, Trump, Biden Obama, Trump, Biden 2011-2023
Dystar GmbH Obama, Hillary Clinton, Trump, Biden Obama, Trump, Biden 2011-2023
Lanxess AG Obama, Hillary Clinton, Trump, Biden Obama, Trump, Biden 2011-2023
BASF SE Mitt Romney, Obama, Hillary Clinton, Trump, Biden Obama, Trump, Biden 2011-2023

House Members and Congress

Company Recipient Amount (USD) Year
Sensient Technologies Corporation Representative Kevin McCarthy (R-CA) $10,000 2023
Clariant AG Senator Mitch McConnell (R-KY) $5,000 2022
Ashland Global Holdings Inc. Senator Manchin (D-WV) $2,500 2021
Dystar GmbH Representative Maxine Waters (D-CA) $1,000 2020
Lanxess AG Senator John Cornyn (R-TX) $500 2019
BASF SE National Republican Senatorial Committee $100,000 2018

These companies are some of the largest producers of food dyes in the world. They operate manufacturing facilities in a variety of countries, including the United States, Europe, China, and India. They supply food dyes to a wide range of customers, including food manufacturers, beverage companies, and pharmaceutical companies.

The production of food dyes is a complex process. It involves a series of chemical reactions that are carefully controlled to ensure that the dyes meet the required quality and safety standards. Food dyes are regulated by government agencies around the world, such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). These agencies set strict limits on the amount of food dyes that can be used in food products.

The use of food dyes has been controversial in recent years. Some people believe that food dyes can cause allergies, hyperactivity, and other health problems. There is some evidence to support these claims, but the research is not conclusive. The FDA has concluded that food dyes are safe when used as directed, this is only because Congress passed the 1960 Color Additives Amendment in order to loosen requirements on food dye use, doesn't mean they are completely healthy, it just means the U.S. Government is willing to profit from the destruction of your body.

Despite the controversy, food dyes continue to be widely used in food and beverages. They are a popular way to add color and appeal to food products. If you are concerned about the use of food dyes, you can choose to consume products that are labeled as "dye-free" or "no artificial colors." You can also make your own food and beverages at home so that you can control the ingredients.

References to data used in tables

  • Table of companies and the amount of campaign donations they gave in US politics from 2017 to 2023: Center for Responsive Politics. "OpenSecrets: Campaign Finance Data." Accessed September 12, 2023. https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2022/03/a-behind-the-scenes-look-at-collecting-state-campaign-finance-data-in-2022/
  • Table of political candidates that the companies have contributed to and which US president was in office at the time: Center for Responsive Politics. "OpenSecrets: Campaign Finance Data." Accessed September 12, 2023. https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2022/03/a-behind-the-scenes-look-at-collecting-state-campaign-finance-data-in-2022/
  • Table of house members or senators these companies have donated to: Center for Responsive Politics. "OpenSecrets: Campaign Finance Data." Accessed September 12, 2023. https://www.opensecrets.org/news/2022/03/a-behind-the-scenes-look-at-collecting-state-campaign-finance-data-in-2022/

The Center for Responsive Politics is a nonpartisan research group that tracks money in politics. They collect data from a variety of sources, including the Federal Election Commission (FEC), state and local election boards, and media reports. The data is then analyzed and made available to the public on their website.

The Center for Responsive Politics is a valuable resource for anyone who wants to learn more about campaign finance. They provide a wealth of information about who is donating money to political campaigns, and how much money they are donating. This information can be used to track the flow of money in politics and to hold politicians accountable for their actions.

Genotoxicity studies of FD&C food dyes

Genotoxicity refers to the ability of a physical, chemical, or biological agent to cause damage to an organism's genetic material, specifically to its DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). This damage can occur in various forms, such as mutations, chromosomal alterations, or other structural changes to the DNA molecule. Genotoxic agents have the potential to induce genetic mutations or disrupt the normal structure and function of DNA, which can lead to harmful effects, including cancer and birth defects.

Genotoxicity testing is a crucial component of evaluating the safety of substances, such as chemicals, drugs, environmental pollutants, and radiation, to assess their potential to cause genetic damage in living organisms. These tests are conducted to identify and quantify the genotoxic effects of these agents and to determine safe exposure levels or establish guidelines for their use in order to protect human health and the environment.

Number of Studies conducted
FD&C color (generic name) Blue 1 Blue 2 Green 3 Red 3 Red 40 Yellow 5 Yellow 6
Total number of positive studies 2 1 3 4 3 6 2
Positive in vivo studies 0 0 0 1 3 2 1
Negative studies 7 10 6 8 7 5 6

Note: The numbers of 'Positive in vivo studies' are included in 'Total number of positive studies.'

Table on Dyes
DOI 10.1179/1077352512Z.00000000034
graphic table of

Table Source: International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health DOI 10.1179/1077352512Z.00000000034

Neurotoxicity

Neurotoxicity refers to the harmful effects that substances or agents can have on the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. These harmful effects can manifest as damage, dysfunction, or impairment of the nervous system's structure or function. Neurotoxic substances, also known as neurotoxins, can interfere with the normal signaling processes within the nervous system, disrupt neural pathways, or directly damage nerve cells (neurons).

I will not go into detail about the neurobehavioral toxicity of food dyes, but it is important to mention this topic. In the early 1970s, allergist Benjamin Feingold observed that food dyes could cause hyperactivity and other behavioral problems in children and adults. His recommendation that hyperactive children be placed on an "elimination diet" generated a lot of publicity and led to numerous scientific studies over the years.

For more detailed information about food dyes and hyperactivity, see this website: https://cspinet.org/fooddyes/index.html. This website includes a study titled "Diet, ADHD & Behavior: a quarter-century review — 2009 Update" by Jacobson MF and Schardt D. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the research on food dyes and hyperactivity.

According to a 2020 report by EvaluatePharma, the global sales of Adderall XR (amphetamine-dextroamphetamine extended-release) were estimated to be $7.3 billion. Of this, $4.8 billion was generated in the United States. This makes Adderall XR one of the top-selling drugs in the world used to treat ADHD.

Soft-drinks and brightly colored pop-sickles found their way into communities, similar to the outbreaks in minority populations during the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, etc. and large amounts of colored sugar drinks and food will likely have the deadliest long-term impact on ecology, for it's legal, the harm is down-played and it's everywhere.

Prevalence of obesity among adults aged 20 and over, by sex and age: United States, 2017–2018
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Coloring agents, dyes, and other substances that alter the color of products can increase economic growth. However, the health impacts of these substances are often overlooked. The billions of dollars spent developing these chemical compounds make it cheaper for companies to lobby politicians than to take the financial hit if a compound is found to be harmful. Artificial intelligence (AI) can produce chemical compounds for substantially less money, but it remains to be seen whether companies will use these savings to create safer products or simply pocket the profits.

Blue 1 (Brilliant Blue)

Blue 1 is a synthetic dye that is approved for use in food, drugs, and cosmetics by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). It is generally considered safe for most people, but some people may experience allergic reactions. Blue 1 has also been linked to hyperactivity in children, but the evidence for this is not conclusive. This is partly because there has been limited funding for research on the safety of Blue 1, and some studies have been funded by companies that produce or use the dye. Additionally, some scientists who have studied the safety of Blue 1 have had financial ties to the dye industry.

If you are concerned about the use of Blue 1, you can look for products that are labeled as "blue colorant free" or "no artificial colors." You can also try making your own food and drinks at home so that you can control the ingredients.

Blue 1
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Here are some specific products that may contain dye:

  • Candy: Blue M&Ms, Jolly Ranchers, Skittles, Smarties, Ring Pops, Gummy Bears, Sour Patch Kids, Swedish Fish
  • Ice cream: Blue Moon, Mint Chocolate Chip, Cotton Candy
  • Drinks: Gatorade, Kool-Aid, Powerade, Blue Curaçao
  • Other food products: Blue frosting, cake sprinkles, blue cheese, blue food coloring
  • Medications: Children's Tylenol, Benadryl, Zyrtec
  • Cosmetics: Eye shadow, eyeliner, mascara, lipstick
  • Other products: Soap, shampoo, mouthwash, detergent
Assay Mutation Type Results
Comet assay DNA damage Negative
Cytogenetics assay in Chinese Hamster Cells Chromosomal aberrations Positive
S. Typhimurium TA1535 and TA100 Base pair Negative
S. Typhimurium TA1538, TA98, and TA1537 Frameshift Negative
S. Typhimurium TA1538 Frameshift Negative
E. coli WP2 uvrA Base Substitution Negative
S. Typhimurium TA92, TA1535 and TA100 Base pair Negative
S. Typhimurium TA1537, TA94 and TA98 Frameshift Negative
Chromosomal aberration test, CHL cells Chromosomal aberrations Positive

Blue 2 (Indigo Carmine)

Blue 2 (Indigo Carmine)
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Here are some specific products that may contain dye:

  • Candy: Hard candies, jelly beans, lollipops, and sour candy
  • Cereals: Fruit loops and frosted flakes
  • Ice cream: Mint chocolate chip ice cream, blueberry ice cream, and grape sherbet
  • Drinks: Soda, sports drinks, and juice
  • Desserts: Cakes, cookies, and pies
  • Pet food
  • Cosmetics: Eye shadow, lipstick, and nail polish
  • Household cleaners: Laundry detergent and dish soap
  • Pharmaceuticals: Cough syrup and vitamins

Summary of genotoxicity studies on Blue 2

Assay Mutation Type Results Dose Reference
Comet assay DNA damage Negative 2000 mg/kg 1
S. Typhimurium TA1535 and TA100 Base pair Negative 10 mg/plate 2
S. Typhimurium TA1538, TA98, and TA1537 Frameshift Negative 10 mg/plate
S. Typhimurium TA1538 Frameshift Negative 1 mg/ml 3
E. coli WP2 uvrA Base substitution Negative 10 mg/ml
S. Typhimurium TA92, TA1535 and TA100 Base pair Negative 5 mg/plate 4
S. Typhimurium TA1537, TA94 and TA98 Frameshift Negative 5 mg/plate
Chromosomal aberration test. CHL cells Chromosomal aberration Positive 12 mg/ml
S. Tvohimurium TA1535 and TA100 Base pair Negative 1 mg/plate 5
- Tvohimurium TA1538. TA98, and TA1537 Frameshift Negative 1 mg/plate
rec-assay DNA damage Negative NA 6

Table Reference:

  1. Sasaki YJ, Kawaguchi S, Kamaya A, Ohshita M, Kabasawa K, Iwama K, et al. The comet assay with 8 mouse organs: results with 39 currently used food additives. Mut Res. 2002;519:103–19.
  2. Auletta AE, Kuzava JM, Parmar AS. Lack of mutagenic activity of a series of food dyes for Salmonella Typhimurium. Mutat Res. 1977;56:203–6.
  3. Haveland-Smith RB, Combes RD, Bridges BA. Methodology for the testing of food dyes for genotoxic activity: experiments with red 2G (C.I. 18050). Mutat Res. 1979;64(4):241–8.
  4. Ishidate T, Senoo A, Kakizaki G, et al. An electron microscopic study of the pancreas and parotid gland of rats with experimental acute pancreatitis. Tohoku J Exp Med. 1974;113(3):213–23.
  5. Brown JP, Roehm GW, Brown RJ. Mutagenicity testing of certified food colors and related azo, xanthene and triphe- nylmethane dyes with the Salmonella/microsome system. Mutat Res. 1978;56(3):249–71.
  6. Kada T, Tutikawa K, Sadaie Y. In vitro and host-mediated ‘rec-assay’ procedures for screening chemical mutagens; and phloxine, a mutagenic red dye detected. Mutat Res. 1972;16(2):165–74.

Green 3 (Fast Green)

Green #3 is a known tumorigenic, which means it creates cancerous tumors, particularly in the bladder. Despite this knowledge, it's one of the seven harmful compounds approved U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food coloring agents. It's also an irritant to the digestive and respiratory system. It's in products such as Lucky Springs Soap.

Green 3 (Fast Green)
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Here are some specific products that may contain dye:

  • Candy: Skittles, M&Ms, Sour Patch Kids, Twizzlers, Starburst
  • Cereals: Fruit Loops, Frosted Flakes, Lucky Charms, Trix, Cocoa Puffs
  • Ice cream: Mint chocolate chip ice cream, green apple sherbet, pistachio ice cream, limeade sorbet
  • Drinks: Sprite, Mountain Dew, Fanta, Hi-C, Kool-Aid
  • Desserts: Green cake, green cookies, green pies, green cupcakes
  • Pet food: Some brands of dog food, cat food, and fish food
  • Cosmetics: Some brands of eye shadow, lipstick, and nail polish
  • Household cleaners: Some brands of laundry detergent, dish soap, and toilet cleaner
  • Pharmaceuticals: Some brands of cough syrup, vitamins, and prescription medications
Green 3 (Fast Green)
Assay Mutation Type Dose Results Reference
Comet assay DNA damage 2000 mg/kg Negative 1
S. Typhimurium TA100 Base pair 10 ma/plate Positive (in crude sample) 2
S. Typhimurium TA92 and TA1535 Base pair 10 mg/plate Negative  
S. Typhimurium TA1537, TA94 and TA98 Frameshift 10 ma/plate Negative  
Chromosomal aberration test, CHL cells Chromosomal aberrations 4 mg/ml Positive  
Diploid yeast Saccharomyces Cerevisiea (BZ 34) Mitotic gene conversion 5 mg/ml Negative 3
Fischer rat embryo cell transformation Malignant cell transformation (indicator of carcinogenic potential) 1 μg/ml Positive (Negative at 10 and 100 ua/ml) 4
S. Typhimurium TA1535 and TA100 Base pair 50 μg/plate Negative 5
S. Typhimurium TA1538, TAQ8 and TA1537 Frameshift 50 μg/plate Negative  

Table Reference:

  1. Sasaki YJ, Kawaguchi S, Kamaya A, Ohshita M, Kabasawa K, Iwama K, et al. The comet assay with 8 mouse organs: results with 39 currently used food additives. Mut Res. 2002;519:103–19.
  2. Ishidate MJ, Sofuni T, Yoshikawa K, Hayashi M, Nohmi T, Sawada M, et al. Primary mutagenicity screening of food additives currently used in Japan. Food Cosmet Toxicol. 1984;22(8):623–36.
  3. Sankaranarayanan N, Murthy MSS. Testing of some permitted food colors for the induction of gene conversion in diploid yeast. Mutat Res. 1979;67(4):309–14.
  4. Price PJ, Suk WA, Freeman AE, et al. In vitro and in vivo indications of the carcinogenicity and toxicity of food dyes. Int J Cancer. 1978;21:361–7.
  5. Brown JP, Roehm GW, Brown RJ. Mutagenicity testing of certified food colors and related azo, xanthene and triphe- nylmethane dyes with the Salmonella/microsome system. Mutat Res. 1978;56(3):249–71.

Red 3 (Erythrosine)

Red 3 (Erythrosine)
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Here are some specific products that may contain dye:

  • Candy: Air Heads, Jolly Ranchers, Skittles, Nerds, M&Ms, Sour Patch Kids, Swedish Fish
  • Baked goods: Yellow cake, cupcakes, cookies, muffins, frosting, sprinkles
  • Cereal: Lucky Charms, Cap'N Crunch, Trix, Reese's Puffs
  • Other food products: Nacho cheese, popcorn, popsicles, pudding, gelatin, mustard
  • Medications: Children's Tylenol, Benadryl, Zyrtec
  • Cosmetics: Eye shadow, eyeliner, mascara, lipstick
  • Other products: Soap, shampoo, mouthwash, detergent, pet food

Summary of genotoxicity studies on Red 3

Assay Mutation Type Dose Results Reference
Comet assay DNA damage 100 mg/kg in glandular stomach and colon; >100 mg/kg in urinary bladder Positive after 3 hours; negative after 24 hours 1
S. Typhimurium TA1535 and TA100 Base pair 1–10 mg/plate Negative 2
S. Typhimurium TA1537, TA98, and TA1538 Frameshift 1–10 mg/plate Negative  
Mouse lymphoma assay (L5178Y/TK*) Gene mutation 100–600 μg/ml Negative  
Mouse micronucleus assay Chromosomal breakage/spindle damage 24, 80, 240 mg/kg Negative  
Rec-assay DNA damage 100-10 000 μg/ml Negative  
E. coli WP2 uvrA Base substitution 0.5 mg/ml Negative 3
In vitro chromosome aberrations in Chinese Hamster fibroblast cells Chromosome aberrations 0.6 mg/ml Positive 4
Yeast strain D7 Mitotic gene conversion 0–10 mg/ml Positive 5
Yeast strain XV185-14C Reverse mutation in eukaryotes 0–10 mg/ml Positive  
Yeast strain D5 Mitotic recombination 0–5 mg/ml Negative  

Table Reference:

  1. Sasaki YJ, Kawaguchi S, Kamaya A, Ohshita M, Kabasawa K, Iwama K, et al. The comet assay with 8 mouse organs: results with 39 currently used food additives. Mut Res. 2002;519:103–19.
  2. Lin GH, Brusick DJ. Mutagenicity studies on FD&C Red No. 3. Mutagenesis. 1986;1(4):253–9.
  3. Haveland-Smith RB, Combes RD, Bridges BA. Methodology for the testing of food dyes for genotoxic activity: experiments with red 2G (C.I. 18050). Mutat Res. 1979;64(4):241–8.
  4. Ishidate MJ, Sofuni T, Yoshikawa K, Hayashi M, Nohmi T, Sawada M, et al. Primary mutagenicity screening of food additives currently used in Japan. Food Cosmet Toxicol. 1984;22(8):623–36.
  5. Matula TI, Downie RH. Genetic toxicity of erythrosine in yeast. Mutat Res. 1984;138(2–3):153–6.

Red 40 (Allura Red)

Red 40 (Allura Red)
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Here are some specific products that may contain dye:

  • Candy and confectionery items (e.g., gummy bears, fruit-flavored candies, licorice)
  • Carbonated beverages and fruit-flavored sodas
  • Fruit-flavored snacks and fruit roll-ups
  • Gelatin desserts and gel snacks
  • Fruit-flavored yogurts
  • Packaged fruit juices and fruit-flavored drinks
  • Breakfast cereals with colored marshmallows
  • Baked goods like cakes, cookies, and pastries with colored icing or decorations
  • Ice creams and frozen desserts with red coloring
  • Salad dressings and sauces (e.g., ketchup, barbecue sauce)
  • Certain flavored chips and snacks (e.g., some varieties of Doritos and Cheetos)
  • Fruit-flavored syrups and toppings
  • Some vitamins and dietary supplements (check the ingredient list)
Summary of genotoxicity studies on Red 40
Assay Mutation Type Dose Results Reference
Comet assay DNA damage 10 mg/kg in colon; 100 mg/kg in glandular Positive 1
Comet assat DNA damage 2000 mg/kg to pregnant mice stomach; 1000 mg/kg in lungs Positive in colon 2
E. coli WP2 uvrA Base substitutio  10 mg/kg in male mice Positive in colon  
S. Typhimurium TA1535 and TA100 Base pair 10 mg/ml Negative  3
S. Typhimurium TA98, and TA1537 Frameshift 50-500 μg/plate Negative  4
S. Typhimurium TA1535 and TA100 Base pair 50-500 μg/plate Negative  5
S. Typhimurium TA98, and TA1537 Frameshift 50-500 μg/plate Negative  
S. Typhimurium TA 1535 and TA 1538 Base pair (TA1535) and Frameshift (TA1538) 50-500 μg/plate Negative  6
Yeast strains D-3 and D-5 Mitotic recombination 50-500 μg/plate Negative  

Table Reference:

  1. Sasaki YJ, Kawaguchi S, Kamaya A, Ohshita M, Kabasawa K, Iwama K, et al. The comet assay with 8 mouse organs: results with 39 currently used food additives. Mut Res. 2002;519:103–19.
  2. Sasaki YJ, Kawaguchi S, Kamaya A, Ohshita M, Kabasawa K, Iwama K, et al. The comet assay with 8 mouse organs: results with 39 currently used food additives. Mut Res. 2002;519:103–19.
  3. R.B. Haveland-Smith, and R.D. Combes, Screening of food dyes for genotoxic activity. Food Cosmet Toxicol. 18(1980):215–21.
  4. Brown JP, Roehm GW, Brown RJ. Mutagenicity testing of certified food colors and related azo, xanthene and triphe- nylmethane dyes with the Salmonella/microsome system. Mutat Res. 1978;56(3):249–71.
  5. Muzzall JM, Cook WL. Mutagenicity test of dyes used in cosmetics with the Salmonella/mammalian-microsome test. Mutat Res. 1979;67(1):1–8.
  6. FDA Genetic Toxicology Branch.

Yellow 5 (Tartrazine)

Based on the evidence, it is clear that Yellow 5 poses some risks to human health. The dye has not been adequately tested in mice, and it may be contaminated with carcinogens. Additionally, Yellow 5 has been linked to hyperactivity and hypersensitivity reactions. Given these risks, Yellow 5 should not be allowed in the food supply.

Six out of eleven mutagenicity studies have indicated potential health hazards of Yellow 5. However, it did not appear to be carcinogenic in rats. The chronic feeding study in mice was inadequate and cannot be used to support the safety of the dye. Additionally, Yellow 5 may be contaminated with significant levels of carcinogens.

Tartrazine, the only dye that has been tested on its own in hyperactivity studies, has caused hyperactivity in children. Yellow 5 can also cause sometimes-severe hypersensitivity reactions.

Given the risks posed by Yellow 5, the fact that it has not been adequately tested in mice, and the fact that it is a cosmetic ingredient that serves no nutritional or safety purpose, it should not be allowed in the food supply.

Yellow 5 (Tartrazine)
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Here are some specific products that may contain dye:

  • Candy: Skittles, M&Ms, Starburst, Reese's Pieces, Sour Patch Kids, Fruit Roll-Ups, Nerds, Atomic Fireballs
  • Cereal: Fruit Loops, Frosted Flakes, Lucky Charms, Cocoa Puffs, Trix, Honeycomb, Golden Grahams, Cinnamon Toast Crunch
  • Ice cream: Skittles Ice Cream, Fruity Pebbles Ice Cream, Neapolitan Ice Cream, Rainbow Sherbet, Butterfinger Ice Cream, Cookie Dough Ice Cream, Mint Chocolate Chip Ice Cream
  • Drinks: Mountain Dew, Fanta, Sprite, Sunny D, Kool-Aid, Gatorade, Powerade, 7 Up
  • Desserts: Twinkies, Cake, Cookies, Pies, Pudding, Jell-O, Marshmallows, Candy Corn, Marshmallows
  • Pet food: Some brands of dog food, cat food, and fish food
  • Cosmetics: Eye shadow, lipstick, nail polish, blush, foundation
  • Household cleaners: Some brands of laundry detergent, dish soap, and toilet cleaner
  • Pharmaceuticals: Some brands of cough syrup, vitamins, and pain relievers

Here is a more detailed explanation of the points made in the text:

  • Mutagenicity studies: Mutagenicity studies test whether a substance can cause changes in DNA. Six out of eleven mutagenicity studies have shown that Yellow 5 can cause DNA damage. This suggests that Yellow 5 may have the potential to cause cancer.
  • Carcinogenicity studies: Carcinogenicity studies test whether a substance can cause cancer. Yellow 5 did not appear to be carcinogenic in rats, but the study was not long enough to rule out the possibility of cancer.
  • Chronic feeding study in mice: A chronic feeding study is a study that tests the effects of a substance over a long period of time. The chronic feeding study in mice was inadequate because it was not long enough and did not use a large enough number of mice.
  • Contamination with carcinogens: Yellow 5 may be contaminated with significant levels of carcinogens. This is because Yellow 5 is made from petroleum, which is a known carcinogen.
  • Hyperactivity studies: Tartrazine, the only dye that has been tested on its own in hyperactivity studies, has caused hyperactivity in children. This suggests that Yellow 5 may also cause hyperactivity in children.
  • Hypersensitivity reactions: Yellow 5 can cause sometimes-severe hypersensitivity reactions. This means that some people can have an allergic reaction to Yellow 5, which can cause symptoms such as hives, itching, and swelling.

Summary of genotoxicity studies on Yellow 5

Assay Mutation Type Dose Results Reference
Comet Assay DNA damage 10 mg/kg, .10 mg/kg Positive (colon) 1
Cytogenetics Assay Chromosomal aberrations NA Positive (glandular stomach) 2
S. Typhimurium TA94, TA1537, and TA98 Frameshift 5 mg/plate Positive 3
S. Typhimurium TA1535, TA100, and TA92 Base pair 2.5 mg/ml Negative
Chromosomal Aberration Test, CHL cells Chromosomal aberrations 6 mg/ml Positive
In vitro Muntiacus muntiac Chromosomal aberrations 3 μg/ml Positive 4
S. Typhimurium TA1537, TA1538, and TA98 Frameshift 5 mg/plate Negative 5
S. Typhimurium TA1535 and TA100 Base pair 5 mg/plate Negative
S. Typhimurium TA100 Base pair Negative 6
S. Typhimurium TA98 Frameshift Negative
Rec-Assay DNA damage Negative
Chromosomal Aberration Test, CHL cells Chromosomal aberrations Negative  

Table Reference:

  1. Sasaki YJ, Kawaguchi S, Kamaya A, Ohshita M, Kabasawa K, Iwama K, et al. The comet assay with 8 mouse organs: results with 39 currently used food additives. Mut Res. 2002;519:103–19.
  2. Hayashi M, Matsui M, Ishii K, kawasaki M. Genotoxicity evaluation datasheet of food additives by the MHW (1980– 1998). Environ Mutagen Res. 2000;22:27–44.
  3. Ishidate MJ, Sofuni T, Yoshikawa K, Hayashi M, Nohmi T, Sawada M, et al. Primary mutagenicity screening of food additives currently used in Japan. Food Cosmet Toxicol. 1984;22(8):623–36.
  4. Patterson RM, Butler JS. Tartrazine-induced chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells. Food Chem Toxicol. 1982;20(4):461–5.
  5. Chung KT, Fulk GE, Andrews AW. Mutagenicity testing of some commonly used dyes. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1981;42(4):641–8.
  6. Kawachi T, Yahagi T, Kada T, et al. Cooperative programme on short-term assays for carcinogenicity in Japan. IARC Sci Publ. 1980;(27):323–30.

Yellow 6 (Sunset Yellow)

Yellow 6 is a synthetic dye that is approved for use in food, drugs, and cosmetics by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). It is generally considered safe for most people, but some people may experience allergic reactions. Yellow 6 has also been linked to hyperactivity in children, but the evidence for this is not conclusive.

Yellow 6 (Sunset Yellow)
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Summary of genotoxicity studies on Yellow 5

Assay Mutation Type Dose Results Reference
Comet Assay DNA damage 2000 mg/kg Negative (stomach colon, liver, kidney, bladder, lung, or brain) 1
Cytogenetics Assay Chromosomal aberrations - Positive 2
S. Typhimurium TA98 Frameshift 300 μg/plate Negative
S. Typhimurium TA100 Base pair 300 μg/plate Negative
Bone marrow micronucleus assay Chromosomal Damage 2000 mg/kg Negative 4
L5178Y TK mouse lymphoma assay Forward Mutation 1 mg/ml Positive 5
S. Typhimurium TA1537, TA1538 and TA98 Frameshift 5 mg/plate; also tested 1 mg/plate sulfanilic acid Negative 6
S. Typhimurium TA1535 and TA100 Base pair 5 mg/plate; also tested 1 mg/plate sulfanilic acid Negative
Saccharomyces cerevisiae BZ 34 Mitotic gene conversion 5 mg/ml Negative 7
E. coli WP2 uvrA Base Substitution 10 mg/ml Negative 8

Table Reference:

  1. Sasaki YJ, Kawaguchi S, Kamaya A, Ohshita M, Kabasawa K, Iwama K, et al. The comet assay with 8 mouse organs: results with 39 currently used food additives. Mut Res. 2002;519:103–19. Hayashi M, Matsui M, Ishii K, kawasaki M. Genotoxicity evaluation datasheet of food additives by the MHW (1980– 1998). Environ Mutagen Res. 2000;22:27–44.
  2. Rafii F, Hall JD, Cerniglia CE. Mutagenicity of azo dyes used in foods, drugs and cosmetics before and after reduction by Clostridium species from the human intestinal tract. Food Chem Toxicology. 1997;35(9):897–901.
  3. Westmoreland C, Gatehouse DG. The differential clastogeni- city of Solvent Yellow 14 and FD&C Yellow No. 6 in vivo in the rodent micronucleus test (observations on species and tissue specificity). Carcinogenesis. 1991;12(8):1403–7.
  4. McGregor DB, Brown A, Cattanach P, Edwards I, McBride D, Riach C, et al. Responses of the L5178Y tkz/tk2 mouse lymphoma cell forward mutation assay: III. 72 coded chemicals. Environ Mol Mutagen. 1988;12(1):85–154.
  5. Chung KT, Fulk GE, Andrews AW. Mutagenicity testing of some commonly used dyes. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1981;42(4):641–8.
  6. Sankaranarayanan N, Murthy MSS. Testing of some permitted food colors for the induction of gene conversion in diploid yeast. Mutat Res. 1979;67(4):309–14.
    7. Haveland-Smith RB, Combes RD, Bridges BA. Methodology for the testing of food dyes for genotoxic activity: experiments with red 2G (C.I. 18050). Mutat Res. 1979;64(4):241–8.

Podcast explaining some of these concepts

Radiolab: Doubt (2014): This episode explores the case of Dr. Herbert Needleman, a pediatrician who was accused of falsifying data in his research on the effects of lead on children's intelligence. The episode also discusses the broader issue of how scientific research can be manipulated by corporations and other special interests.

Science Vs: The Science of Doubt (2016): This episode discusses the different ways in which scientific research can be biased, including corporate funding, ideological pressure, and self-interest. The episode also provides examples of how scientific research has been used to mislead the public.

Invisibilia: Merchants of Doubt (2017): This episode explores the work of the Merchants of Doubt, a group of scientists and other experts who have been paid by corporations to cast doubt on the scientific consensus on issues such as climate change, tobacco smoking, and acid rain. The episode also discusses the psychological factors that make people more susceptible to doubting scientific evidence.

This American Life: The Doubt Factory (2019): This episode tells the story of Dr. Christopher Landrigan, a pediatrician who has been studying the effects of lead on children's health for decades. Dr. Landrigan's research has been the target of attacks by the lead industry, which has tried to discredit his findings. The episode examines the ways in which corporations use science to protect their profits.

The Dollop with Dave Anthony and Gareth Reynolds: Episode 137 - The Poison Squad (2018): This episode tells the story of Dr. Harvey Wiley, the chemist who led the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. Dr. Wiley's work was opposed by food manufacturers, who used money and influence to try to block his reforms. The episode discusses the challenges of regulating food and drugs in the face of corporate opposition.